Rani Gaidinliu's Secret and Encrypted Notebook

 In Arkotong Longkumer's conclusion about Rani Gaidinliu's secret notebooks, the focus lies on the complex interplay between language, culture, and material objects. The notebooks present a unique challenge due to their apparent incomprehensibility, as their contents remain largely unreadable. Despite skepticism from some, including individuals like Mills (Gaidinliu's captor), Longkumer emphasizes that dismissing the notebooks as mere scribbles overlooks their potential value.

Returning the notebooks to the Heraka community revealed their significance. Instead of viewing them as talismans or lost cultural artifacts, Longkumer suggests considering them as an indigenous language system in their own right. This perspective transforms the interpretation of their importance. Longkumer proposes that comprehending the notebooks requires understanding the diverse modalities of textuality, including the body, writing, songs, dreams, and prophecy, all rooted in human experience and understanding of the world. By recognizing that the notebooks are experienced rather than simply read or understood, fresh interpretative possibilities emerge.

The narratives linked to the notebooks offer another interpretation, one that highlights their role in predicting future events that will lead to the emergence of the Heraka kingdom. The act of returning the notebooks can be seen as an enactment in the "tense of a metaphysical present," wherein past, present, and future converge to shape meaningful narratives. Additionally, the prophecy within the notebooks can be placed within a linear timeframe, from their colonial capture to their present revelation and unknown future.

Longkumer's role in returning the notebooks becomes central to the narrative of the Heraka kingdom's arrival. The power of the notebooks themselves, whether in original or copied form, is evident in the discussions with the Heraka community. These discussions raise questions about the nature of the object being returned—whether it is the physical notebooks, the words, lines, pages, or hidden codes within. Longkumer contemplates that the script's presence in songs may negate the need for the documents themselves, yet bringing back the notebooks evoked positive responses tied to the material presence of the script initiating the kingdom's coming.

The broader implications of material objects and their interactions with the world are also explored. Longkumer references Nicholas Thomas' perspective that material objects are rooted in social relations that extend beyond museum walls. The notebooks, even after their removal by the British administrators, continue to exert agency, mediating the influence of historical figures like Gaidinliu, Jadonang, or Tingwang. Returning the notebooks triggers various reactions among different audiences, reflecting anxiety and celebration. This experience underscores that artifacts and their meanings can extend beyond museum confines through social interactions.

Longkumer's endeavor to return the notebooks evolves into an exploration of the "afterlives" of material artifacts. The act of returning the notebooks is viewed by the Heraka as a step toward the realization of "the kingdom." Longkumer's role in this process is not just about returning an artifact but about bringing the realization of "the kingdom" closer to fulfillment. Ultimately, this encounter holds the power to shape the future, emphasizing the interplay between culture, objects, and the potential to influence outcomes.

Source: Line's that Speak

Makuilongdi

Makuilongdi: The Ancestral Cradle of Zeliangrong Civilization

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Makuilongdi holds an exceptionally significant and revered position within the historical narratives and cultural memory of the Zeliangrong people. This ancient settlement is widely regarded as the foundational cradle of Zeliangrong society and culture, playing an absolutely crucial and formative role in the initial development and subsequent evolution of their distinctive social structures, political systems, and intricate religious practices. The name "Makuilongdi" itself carries deep meaning, deriving from "Makui," signifying 'round,' and "Longdi," denoting a 'big hill' or 'mountain,' thus translating descriptively to "big round hill," reflecting its topographical characteristics. According to long-standing oral traditions and historical accounts, the Zeliangrong people were the pioneering settlers in this strategic and fertile area. It is believed that some initial migrants originating from Chawangphungning played a pivotal role in establishing this foundational village. The inherent fertility of the land surrounding Makuilongdi was instrumental in facilitating surplus food production, which in turn fostered substantial population growth. As the population expanded and thrived, numerous smaller villages gradually formed, extending their jurisdiction and cultural influence under the overarching authority and guidance of Makuilongdi, thereby establishing a nascent regional network of settlements.¹

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Makuilongdi is widely believed to have been the original source and developmental hub for numerous key aspects that came to define Zeliangrong society and culture. This foundational influence encompasses a wide array of societal elements, including their characteristic lineage-based organization, which formed the bedrock of their communal identity; their strongly patrilineal social structure, dictating family and inheritance lines; the establishment of hereditary chieftainship, providing centralized leadership; the formation of village councils, essential for democratic governance and dispute resolution; the development of the distinctive dormitory systems (such as the Morung), crucial for youth training and social cohesion; the origin and evolution of their vibrant array of festivals, deeply intertwined with agricultural cycles and spiritual beliefs; the articulation of their complex religious beliefs and animistic practices; and the solidification of their unique social customs and etiquette. Within this flourishing environment, the village chief played an exceptionally significant and pivotal role in the political system, acting as both a temporal leader and a spiritual guide. Under this established system, the people of Makuilongdi are recounted to have enjoyed a period of remarkable prosperity and enduring peace, fostering a stable and culturally rich community life.²

The history of Makuilongdi is interwoven with compelling legends that explain significant events, particularly the migrations that shaped the Zeliangrong diaspora. One notable legend vividly recounts how cicadas, acting as natural omens, warned the people about the severe consequences of violating the sacred lunar calendar and transgressing natural laws due to excessive and unrestrained celebrations, foreshadowing an impending crisis. Another pivotal legend narrates a profound family crisis centered on the contentious choice of successors between two sons of the revered village chief, Nguiba. This deep-seated internal conflict ultimately led to the momentous migration of the descendants of one son, who subsequently became known as the Zeme people, venturing forth to settle in the fertile plains near the Barak River. Meanwhile, the Liangmei people chose to remain in Makuilongdi, steadfastly preserving the original hearth and ancestral traditions. Conversely, the Rongmei, driven by their adventurous spirit, embarked on extensive migrations to various new areas, eventually establishing significant settlements in diverse regions, prominently including the Tamenglong District in Manipur. These legends serve not only as historical accounts but also as moral tales, reinforcing cultural values and explaining tribal divisions.³

The extensive migrations of the Zeliangrong people from Makuilongdi can be attributed to a confluence of compelling and multifaceted reasons. Primary among these factors was the challenge posed by overpopulation, as the fertile lands of Makuilongdi, while initially abundant, eventually reached their carrying capacity. This demographic pressure was exacerbated by the prevailing practice of shifting cultivation (jhum), an agricultural method that requires large tracts of land and periodic relocation to allow exhausted fields to regenerate, thereby necessitating expansion into new territories. Consequently, the increasing non-availability of cultivable lands within the immediate vicinity of Makuilongdi spurred outward movement in search of fresh farming grounds. Furthermore, internal conflicts, particularly those arising from disagreements over the succession to hereditary chieftainship, played a significant role in prompting segments of the population to seek new homes and establish independent communities, as illustrated by the pivotal family crisis involving Chief Nguiba's sons. These combined socio-economic and political pressures collectively served as powerful catalysts for the Zeliangrong diaspora from their ancestral home.⁴

The Rongmei people, who represent a distinct and vibrant group that emerged from the ancestral hearth of Makuilongdi, are historically renowned for their adventurous spirit and pioneering zeal. Driven by a combination of necessity and an inherent desire for exploration, they embarked upon extensive migrations and established settlements in diverse and geographically widespread locations across the Northeast region of India. Their migratory paths led them to found new homes in various districts within Manipur, including Tamenglong, Churachandpur, Senapati, Imphal, Thoubal, and Bishnupur. Beyond Manipur, Rongmei communities also established significant presences in parts of Nagaland and Assam, reflecting their remarkable adaptability and ability to thrive in varied ecological and cultural landscapes. These widespread settlements bear testament to the enduring legacy of Makuilongdi as the source from which a vast network of kin-based communities branched out, carrying with them the core elements of Zeliangrong culture and identity.⁵

In summation, Makuilongdi transcends its geographical location to serve as an profoundly crucial historical and cultural landmark for the entire Zeliangrong people. Its legacy extends far beyond a mere ancestral village; it played an absolutely foundational and indispensable role in shaping the intricate fabric of their society, nurturing the evolution of their distinctive traditions, and catalyzing the subsequent widespread migrations that led to the establishment of Zeliangrong communities across various regions of Northeast India. The narratives surrounding Makuilongdi continue to be a source of collective identity, historical memory, and cultural pride for the Zeliangrong, symbolizing their shared origins and the enduring resilience of their heritage.⁶

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Footnotes:

1. This paragraph synthesizes information on the origin, naming, initial settlement, and early growth of Makuilongdi, drawing from common Zeliangrong oral histories and cultural interpretations. See: Gangmumei Kamei, A History of Modern Manipur (1826-1949) (New Delhi: Spectrum Publications, 2004), 28-30; S. R. Singh, The Zeliangrong Nagas: A Study of their Culture, History and Political System (New Delhi: Omsons Publications, 1996), 38-42.

2. The detailing of social and political development at Makuilongdi, including lineage, patrilineality, chieftainship, village councils, dormitories, and cultural practices, is derived from ethnographic accounts of Zeliangrong society, often tracing these back to ancestral origins. See: Kamei, A History of Modern Manipur, 30-32; Singh, The Zeliangrong Nagas, 45-50.

3. The legends concerning cicadas and the family crisis of Chief Nguiba leading to the migrations of Zeme, Liangmai, and Rongmei are pivotal elements of Zeliangrong oral traditions explaining their tribal divisions. See: Kamei, A History of Modern Manipur, 32-34; Singh, The Zeliangrong Nagas, 55-60.

4. Reasons for migration, such as overpopulation, shifting cultivation practices, land availability, and internal conflicts over succession, are commonly cited factors in the historical dispersal of many indigenous communities. These are interpreted in the context of Makuilongdi's historical situation. See: Singh, The Zeliangrong Nagas, 60-65.

5. The adventurous spirit and widespread settlement patterns of the Rongmei, specifically mentioning districts in Manipur, Nagaland, and Assam, are well-documented aspects of their post-Makuilongdi history. See: Kamei, A History of Modern Manipur, 35-37; Singh, The Zeliangrong Nagas, 70-75.

6. This concluding paragraph summarizes the overall significance of Makuilongdi as a foundational historical and cultural landmark for the Zeliangrong people. The interpretation draws from the cumulative understanding presented in the preceding paragraphs.

The Artifacts of the Rongmei Naga

The artifacts of the Rongmei Naga, an indigenous community in Northeast India, distinctly showcase their rich cultural heritage and traditional way of life. With a unique artistic expression, the Rongmei Naga people encapsulate various facets of their daily existence, beliefs, and historical narratives. Here are some prominent artifacts that highlight the essence of the Rongmei Naga culture:

1. Traditional Attire and Accessories: The traditional attire of the Rongmei Naga people boasts intricately woven garments adorned with vibrant hues and intricate patterns. Women gracefully drape themselves in wrap-around skirts, locally known as "innaphi" or "phanek," embellished with traditional motifs. Men complement their attire with a loincloth called "lungi," often accompanied by culturally significant accessories like headgear, jewelry, and shawls.

2. Handwoven Textiles: Handwoven textiles hold a pivotal role in the tapestry of Rongmei Naga culture. Adroit artisans employ time-honored weaving techniques to craft textiles that showcase intricate designs reflecting their heritage and individuality. These handwoven textiles are not limited to clothing; they also find purpose in home adornments and ceremonial contexts.

3. Bamboo and Cane Crafts: The Rongmei Nagas exhibit remarkable skill in crafting a diverse range of items using bamboo and cane, resources abundant in their region. Their creations encompass baskets, mats, trays, and essential household utensils. Beyond their utilitarian function, these crafts radiate artistic finesse, serving as a testament to the community's craftsmanship.

4. Wood Carvings: Wood carvings stand as a prominent facet of Rongmei Naga artistic expression. The finely carved wooden sculptures and decorative pieces often depict mythical creatures, animals, and symbols deeply ingrained in their cultural heritage. These intricately carved creations find purpose in religious rituals, embellishing homes, and fostering community connections.

5. Pottery: Traditional pottery is an integral component of Rongmei Naga culture. The art of crafting pots, jars, and containers using clay is central to their culinary practices, storage needs, and domestic rituals. These pottery pieces feature distinctive designs and shapes that hold significance specific to the community.

6. Musical Instruments: Music occupies a cherished place within Rongmei Naga culture. The community crafts a variety of musical instruments, including drums, flutes, gongs, and bamboo-based instruments. These melodic tools accompany festivals, celebrations, and cultural performances, resonating with the rhythm of their traditions.

7. Jewelry and Ornaments: Jewelry and ornaments carry both aesthetic allure and profound cultural significance for the Rongmei Nagas. Meticulously fashioned from materials such as beads, shells, and metals, these adornments include necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and traditional hairpins adorned with intricate designs. These pieces serve as emblematic markers of identity and societal status.

8. Cultural Artifacts: The Rongmei Naga community employs an array of artifacts in their traditional ceremonies, rituals, and festive observances. Among these are masks, ritual objects, and symbolic items that form an integral part of their cultural practices, embodying ancestral wisdom and communal unity.

The artifacts of the Rongmei Naga resonate with a profound connection to nature, spirituality, and the legacy of their forebears. Each artifact carries within it narratives, traditions, and cultural values, perpetuating the distinctiveness of their heritage across generations.

Chaakan Gaan-Ngai

INTRODUCTION

Image: A-pao

Gaan Ngai Festival: Nurturing the Heart of Zeliangrong Culture

Culture, tradition, and religious practices are threads that intricately weave the identity of a community. For the Zeliangrong people, the Gaan Ngai Festival stands as a pinnacle, embodying their cultural and religious essence. This festival, also known as Chaakan Gaan-Ngai, serves as a vibrant tapestry that not only unites the Zeliangrong community but also reflects their historical journey and spiritual connection. From its origin to its modern-day celebration, Gaan Ngai Festival holds a special place in the hearts and lives of the Zeliangrong people, residing in the states of Manipur, Nagaland, and Assam.

A Triad of Names and Uniting Essence

The Zeliangrong community, a collective term for Zemei, Liangmai, and Rongmei (Kabui) tribes, along with Puimei, came into being on February 15, 1947, at Keishamthong Kabui Village. Gaan Ngai Festival, also known as Gin-Ngi among the Liangmai, Hega-Ngi among the Zeme, and Chaakan Gaan-Ngai or Chaakak Ngai among the Rongmei (Kabui) and Puimei, serves as a bridge that connects these various tribal identities into a harmonious celebration of their shared heritage.

The Journey of Recognition and Celebration

The history of Gaan Ngai Festival, much like the tale of the Zeliangrong people, is a narrative of perseverance and recognition. In 1976, during the R.K. Dorendra Ministry, Gaan Ngai Festival was granted restricted holiday status in Manipur, a testament to the efforts of various Zeliangrong organizations. This recognition marked a significant step toward acknowledging the festival's cultural and religious significance.

The festival's journey toward recognition, however, wasn't without its challenges. The Ibobi Singh-led government removed Gaan Ngai Festival from the holiday list in 2003. However, public outcry and media pressure compelled the government to restore its rightful place. This episode underscores the festival's deep-rooted importance to the Zeliangrong community and their unwavering commitment to preserving their cultural heritage.

Gaan Ngai: A Celebration of Abundance and Spirituality

Gaan Ngai Festival, a post-harvest celebration, paints a vivid picture of Zeliangrong culture and spirituality. Falling in the winter season, the festival's name itself reveals its essence: "Gaan" translates to winter or dry season, and "Ngai" signifies a joyful festival. The festival's roots trace back to the time when the Supreme God, Ragwang, created the universe and all that resides within it.

The Zeliangrong people, once living in harmony with gods, experienced turmoil due to the gods' dominance. Legends recount the transformation of men into khoidai (bees), signifying a rebellion that led to the expulsion of gods from the communal dormitory known as Khangchu. This act of defiance brought peace to the Zeliangrong people, a pivotal event commemorated through Gaan Ngai.

Rituals and Customs: Nurturing Tradition

Gaan Ngai Festival carries a rich tapestry of rituals and customs, each contributing to its holistic celebration. The preparation for the festival begins months in advance. The collection of plant trunks, known as Taa bang or Tamu bang, symbolizes the festival's fire-making ritual. This fire, believed to be sacred and auspicious, is produced through the art of rubbing and pressing these trunks.

The festival's schedule is meticulously planned by village elders, and designated members of Khangchu (male dormitory) and Luchu (female dormitory) play pivotal roles in executing its events. From offering ritual prayers to the gate-protecting deities to distributing the sacred fire, every aspect of Gaan Ngai holds spiritual significance.

Embracing Change while Honoring Tradition

As Gaan Ngai Festival evolved through time, certain changes have occurred, while the core essence remains intact. Modern conveniences have replaced certain traditional practices, and the vibrancy of folk stories and songs has endured the test of time. Despite these changes, the festival's soul remains rooted in its spiritual connection, fostering unity and gratitude among the Zeliangrong community.

Gaan Ngai Festival is a living testament to the Zeliangrong people's resilience, cultural pride, and deep-rooted spirituality. From its humble origins to its recognition as a significant holiday, this festival serves as a bridge between generations, reminding them of their ancestral heritage and the importance of cherishing their roots.

As the Zeliangrong community gathers to celebrate Gaan Ngai Festival, they partake in a shared legacy, nourishing their cultural identity while embracing the winds of change. In their celebrations, rituals, and camaraderie, they continue to preserve the heart of their culture, ensuring that the flame of Gaan Ngai burns brightly for generations to come.

1. Ngai Guangmei (First Day of Chakan Gaan-Ngai)

Rani Gaidinliu and Heraka Religion

Rani Gaidinliu, often hailed as the "daughter of the hills," was a formidable figure in India's freedom struggle, particularly in the northeastern region. Her life, spanning from 1915 to 1993, was a testament to courage, spiritual conviction, and an unwavering commitment to her people's identity and autonomy against the oppressive British colonial rule. Born into the Liangmai tribe of the Naga community in Nungkao village, Manipur, Gaidinliu's early life was deeply rooted in the rich cultural and religious traditions of her indigenous community. This upbringing profoundly shaped her worldview and fueled her later resistance against external influences that threatened her people's way of life.

wikipedia.org

Her journey into the nationalist movement began precociously at the age of thirteen, when she became an ardent follower of her cousin, Haipou Jadonang. Jadonang was a charismatic Rongmei Naga spiritual leader and social reformer who initiated the Heraka movement. This movement was a powerful blend of religious revivalism and political awakening. Religiously, it sought to revitalize ancestral Naga religious practices and customs, advocating for a return to indigenous beliefs in the face of growing Christian missionary activities. Politically, it was a direct challenge to British authority, aiming to liberate the Naga people from colonial subjugation and restore their traditional self-governance. Jadonang's vision of a sovereign Naga homeland and his prophecies about the end of British rule resonated deeply with the various Naga tribes, garnering significant support.

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Under Jadonang's mentorship, Gaidinliu rapidly assimilated his teachings, becoming a passionate proponent of the Heraka faith. She accompanied him on his extensive travels, disseminating the movement's message and galvanizing the Naga youth. Her innate leadership qualities, characterized by eloquence, bravery, and a profound empathy for her people's aspirations, quickly made her a prominent figure. However, the British, perceiving Jadonang's escalating influence as a grave threat, arrested him in 1931 on charges of sedition and executed him. Far from extinguishing the movement, Jadonang's martyrdom served as a catalyst, igniting a fiercer determination among his followers, with Gaidinliu courageously stepping forward to assume his mantle.

Despite her tender age, Gaidinliu fearlessly took the reins of the Heraka movement, transforming it into an even more potent force against the British. She exhorted her people to defy British laws, refuse to pay taxes, and resist forced labor (begar), which were deeply resented colonial impositions. Her message struck a chord with the disillusioned Naga populace, who had long endured the exploitative policies of the colonial government. She orchestrated armed resistance, employing effective guerrilla warfare tactics against the superior British forces. Her followers, though often armed with basic weapons, were propelled by an unyielding spirit of defiance and an unwavering faith in their young leader.

Gaidinliu's campaigns transcended mere political independence; they were intricately intertwined with her broader vision of cultural and religious resurgence. She championed the Heraka faith as a vital bulwark against the aggressive proselytizing efforts of Christian missionaries, whom she viewed as instruments of British cultural imperialism. She firmly believed that safeguarding their indigenous religion was paramount to preserving their unique identity and preventing the erosion of their traditional way of life. This powerful fusion of spiritual conviction and political resistance earned her the honorific "Rani" (Queen) from Jawaharlal Nehru, who recognized her extraordinary courage and leadership during his visit to Manipur in 1937.

The British administration, increasingly alarmed by Gaidinliu's burgeoning influence and the escalating frequency of rebellions, launched extensive military operations to capture her. They offered substantial rewards for her apprehension and deployed armed police and Assam Rifles personnel in a relentless pursuit. For four arduous years, Gaidinliu remained elusive, constantly moving from village to village, tirelessly mobilizing support and leading her followers in open defiance. She became a living symbol of resistance, inspiring countless individuals to join the movement. Her legend grew with each evaded capture, solidifying her status as a folk hero among the Naga people.

In October 1932, after an exhaustive pursuit, Gaidinliu was finally captured by British forces from the Pulomi village in the North Cachar Hills. She was a mere seventeen years old at the time of her arrest. She was subsequently tried on charges of murder and incitement to violence and sentenced to life imprisonment. She endured fourteen years in various prisons across Assam, including Guwahati, Shillong, Aizawl, and Tura. Despite the harsh conditions and prolonged incarceration, her convictions remained unshaken. Her imprisonment, far from breaking her spirit, only fortified her resolve and further cemented her image as a martyr for her people's cause.

With India's independence in 1947, Rani Gaidinliu was released from prison, a direct result of the persistent efforts of Jawaharlal Nehru, who had been profoundly moved by her story during his involvement in the freedom struggle. Upon her release, she continued to dedicate her life to the welfare and upliftment of her people. She tirelessly advocated for the official recognition of the Heraka faith and campaigned for the cultural preservation of the Naga tribes. She also played a significant role in fostering inter-tribal harmony and promoting integration within the broader Indian nation.

Rani Gaidinliu’s contributions extended beyond the pre-independence era. She remained a prominent figure in post-independent India, actively participating in social and political movements aimed at securing the rights and welfare of the Naga people. Her unwavering commitment to her people's identity and her tireless efforts for their betterment earned her numerous accolades and widespread respect.

In recognition of her immense contributions to the nation, Rani Gaidinliu was bestowed with the Tamrapatra Freedom Fighter Award in 1972, followed by the Padma Bhushan, India's third-highest civilian award, in 1982. She also received the Vivekananda Seva Award in 1983. The Government of India further honored her legacy by issuing a commemorative postage stamp in 1996 and a two-rupee coin in 2015, marking her birth centenary.

Rani Gaidinliu passed away on February 17, 1993, at the age of 78, leaving behind an extraordinary legacy of unparalleled courage, spiritual conviction, and unwavering dedication to her people. Her life serves as an inspiring testament to the power of indigenous resistance against colonial oppression and the enduring spirit of a woman who dared to challenge the might of an empire for the freedom and cultural integrity o her community. She remains a cherished figure, a symbol of resistance and cultural pride, not just for the Naga people but for the entire nation. Her story is a poignant reminder of the diverse and often overlooked narratives within India's struggle for independence, highlighting the crucial role played by regional leaders and indigenous communities in shaping the destiny of the nation. Her steadfast commitment to her ancestral faith and her people's self-determination continues to inspire generations, reinforcing the importance of cultural identity and the fight for justice and autonomy.

Notes:

1. "Rani Gaidinliu," Cultural India, accessed July 26, 2025, https://www.culturalindia.net/indian-history/freedom-fighters/rani-gaidinliu.html.

2. "Rani Gaidinliu: The Naga spiritual leader who fought the British," The Economic Times, accessed July 26, 2025, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/et-explains/rani-gaidinliu-the-naga-spiritual-leader-who-fought-the-british/articleshow/88636735.cms.

3. "Rani Gaidinliu: Freedom Fighter and Spiritual Leader," India Post, accessed July 26, 2025, https://www.indiapost.gov.in/VAS/Pages/StampCollecting/Stamps.aspx?CatID=3.

4. "Rani Gaidinliu: The forgotten freedom fighter of Northeast India," Firstpost, accessed July 26, 2025, https://www.firstpost.com/india/rani-gaidinliu-the-forgotten-freedom-fighter-of-northeast-india-2495368.html.

5. "Heraka movement," Wikipedia, last modified July 20, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraka_movement.

6. "Rani Gaidinliu: A Naga Freedom Fighter," Government of India, Ministry of Culture, accessed July 26, 2025, https://www.indiaculture.gov.in/rani-gaidinliu-naga-freedom-fighter.

7. "Biography of Rani Gaidinliu," Indian Freedom Fighters, accessed July 26, 2025, https://www.indianfreedomfighters.in/rani-gaidinliu.

8. Arkotong Longkumer, "Reform, Identity and Narratives of Belonging: The Heraka Movement in Northeast India" (London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2010).

9. Arkotong Longkumer, "'Cleanliness is next to Godliness': Religious change, hygiene and the renewal of Heraka Villages in Assam," Contributions to Indian Sociology 45, no. 2 (2011): 181–207.

10. Arkotong Longkumer, "Religious and Economic Reform: The Gaidinliu Movement and the Heraka in the North Cachar Hills," South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 30, no. 3 (2007): 499-519.

11. "Rani Gaidinliu and Heraka Religion," Rongmei Encyclopedia, last modified January 24, 2019, https://rongmeiencyclopedia.wordpress.com/2019/01/24/rani-gaidinliu-and-heraka-religion/.

12. "Heraka The primordial religion," E-Pao, accessed July 26, 2025, https://e-pao.net/epSubPageSelector.asp?src=Heraka_The_primordial_religion&ch=manipur&sub1=Manipur_and_Religion.